How can I repair Finder without SSH or safe mode access?

I'm looking for a way to reinstall Mavericks without access to the boot-time repair mode.
I went to use my 2012 Mac mini this morning to find I had been logged out. Odd but I didn't make much of it. After logging in successfully, I found that I could not launch any applications from the launch bar - they bounce once or twice, maybe show a dot underneath, then the dot vanishes (if it appeared) and no application launches. Additionally, trying click on the Spotlight magnifying glass or pressing command-space did nothing, except make the Spotlight, date, time, etc. disappear from the menu bar. Double-clicking a PDF on the desktop causes the Preview application (not normally in my launch bar) to appear, bounce, then disappear. Clicking on the Apple menu and selecting "About This Mac" logs me out and presents me with a login screen. Command-Option-Esc has the same effect of logging me out. I tried booting into Safe Mode and couldn't get it to work and it doesn't seem like others have had problems pressing Shift to get to Safe Mode after the boot tone but before the grey screen & Apple logo appear. I tried SSHing into the computer but could not connect.
Any ideas are greatly appreciated.

If you want to preserve the data on the startup drive, and it's not already backed up, you must try to back up now, before you do anything else. It may or may not be possible. If you don't care about the data, you can skip this step.
There are several ways to back up a Mac that is not fully functional. You need an external hard drive or other storage device to hold the data.
1. Start up from the Recovery partition, from Internet Recovery, or from a local Time Machine backup volume (option key at startup.) Launch Disk Utility and follow the instructions in this support article, under “Instructions for backing up to an external hard disk via Disk Utility.” The article refers to starting up from a DVD, but the procedure in Recovery mode is the same. You don't need a DVD if you're running OS X 10.7 or later.
2. If Method 1 fails because of disk errors, then you may be able to salvage some of your files by copying them in the Finder. If you already have an external drive with OS X installed, start up from it. Otherwise, if you have Internet access, follow the instructions on this page to prepare the external drive and install OS X on it. You'll use the Recovery installer, rather than downloading it from the App Store.
3. If you have access to a working Mac, and both it and the non-working Mac have FireWire or Thunderbolt ports, start the non-working Mac in target disk mode. Use the working Mac to copy the data to another drive. This technique won't work with USB, Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or Bluetooth.
4. If the internal drive of the non-working Mac is user-replaceable, remove it and mount it in an external enclosure or drive dock. Use another Mac to copy the data.

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