Why does my Cisco router firewall block Windows Server 2012 traffic, but not Windows Server 2008 traffic?

Question

Hello,
   I run a small business network with five physical servers: three Dell servers running Windows Server 2008 R2, one custom build running 2008, and another custom build running 2012 with Domain Controller Role (same hardware for both custom builds). 
The Dell servers are all running the Hyper-V role and each has a number of 2008 VMs.  I also have a 2012 VM with the Domain Controller Role on one of the Hyper-V servers and another VM with a completely base install of 2012.
   All servers are plugged into a Cisco SG300-52 switch which is uplinked to a Cisco 881 router which is connected to a cable TWC provided Ubee cable modem.  I have no VLANs setup.  I do have the Firewall on the router configured
to inspect most traffic.
   Here is my problem:  I cannot connect to most of the internet on ANY 2012 server (and all exhibit the exact same behavior), but I have NO problems connecting to the internet from 2008 servers.  Here is what I already know:
   1.) I can ping the outside world just fine so ICMP is passing to any external host.
   2.) Two of the 2012 servers are DCs running DNS services and they can connect to the internet just fine for DNS requests because they are doing a perfectly good job of providing DNS services to my network.
   3.) Here's where it gets really weird: I can browse in internet explorer to Bing.com and it works.  I can also go to a couple other Microsoft websites (though they are very slow).  If I click on any link in Bing, however, it doesn't
work and gives me a page not available error.  If I connect to a non-MS website like Google or my company website, I get page not available.
    4.) I have tried to telnet to port 80 at Bing and it works.  I have tried to telnet to port 80 at google.com and it won't connect.  The 2008 servers have no issue telneting to either bing or google on port 80 and none of my client
PCs on the network do either.
    5.) Windows Update will not connect and neither will any other update service such as AVG (I have AVG Antivirus installed WITHOUT firewall on two of the three servers. The base 2012 VM has no software installed and no roles...I built it
just to see if it could connect after a fresh install and it still cannot.)
    6.) The network connection does not indicate limited connectivity (probably because ICMP appears to be passing successfully)
     7.) If I connect the server directly to the modem it has full internet access.
     8.) All internal LAN connectivity is perfectly fine and runs at full speed.
     9.) I have scoured the internet trying to find other examples of this particular kind of connectivity issue on 2012 and I have found two TechNet articles that are similar, but they both had the same resolution: changing the router
worked, but no one knows why. (I would have included the links, but apparently I cannot do that yet)
My question is this: What is different about Windows Server 2012 networking that would render it unable to communicate through a router that Windows Server 2008 has no problems with?  I ask because, unlike in these two articles where they were
running personal networking equipment they could easily upgrade, I'm running a Cisco 881 with what should be virtually limitless configuration options and I have no desire to replace it.  I have to assume the issue is somehow related to the firewall configuration,
which I could fix easily, but I don't know what to change.  If anyone knows what changed in 2012 and why I would be able to browse to bing and other MS sites but no where else, please pass them along.  Thanks.

Answer 1

This is the IP Config for the 2012 DC:
Windows IP Configuration
   Host Name . . . . . . . . . . . . : COMPANYDC02
   Primary Dns Suffix  . . . . . . . : company.local
   Node Type . . . . . . . . . . . . : Hybrid
   IP Routing Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
   WINS Proxy Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
   DNS Suffix Search List. . . . . . : company.local
Ethernet adapter Ethernet:
   Connection-specific DNS Suffix  . :
   Description . . . . . . . . . . . : Intel(R) 82574L Gigabit Network Connection
   Physical Address. . . . . . . . . : 00-25-90-DC-EF-D5
   DHCP Enabled. . . . . . . . . . . : No
   Autoconfiguration Enabled . . . . : Yes
   Link-local IPv6 Address . . . . . : fe80::81d5:53cf:bd07:14ed%12(Preferred)
   IPv4 Address. . . . . . . . . . . : 10.10.10.202(Preferred)
   Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.0
   Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 10.10.10.1
   DHCPv6 IAID . . . . . . . . . . . : 301999504
   DHCPv6 Client DUID. . . . . . . . : 00-01-00-01-1A-96-D5-C3-00-25-90-DC-EF-D5
   DNS Servers . . . . . . . . . . . : 10.10.10.202
                                       10.10.10.221
   NetBIOS over Tcpip. . . . . . . . : Enabled
Tunnel adapter isatap.{9929D989-8E88-4096-A1CB-61F1DB173FA3}:
   Media State . . . . . . . . . . . : Media disconnected
   Connection-specific DNS Suffix  . :
   Description . . . . . . . . . . . : Microsoft ISATAP Adapter
   Physical Address. . . . . . . . . : 00-00-00-00-00-00-00-E0
   DHCP Enabled. . . . . . . . . . . : No
   Autoconfiguration Enabled . . . . : Yes
Tunnel adapter Teredo Tunneling Pseudo-Interface:
   Media State . . . . . . . . . . . : Media disconnected
   Connection-specific DNS Suffix  . :
   Description . . . . . . . . . . . : Microsoft Teredo Tunneling Adapter
   Physical Address. . . . . . . . . : 00-00-00-00-00-00-00-E0
   DHCP Enabled. . . . . . . . . . . : No
   Autoconfiguration Enabled . . . . : Yes
This is the IP Config for the fresh install 2012 VM:
Windows IP Configuration
   Host Name . . . . . . . . . . . . : WIN-800299O7ES6
   Primary Dns Suffix  . . . . . . . :
   Node Type . . . . . . . . . . . . : Hybrid
   IP Routing Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
   WINS Proxy Enabled. . . . . . . . : No
   DNS Suffix Search List. . . . . . : company.local
Ethernet adapter Ethernet:
   Connection-specific DNS Suffix  . : company.local
   Description . . . . . . . . . . . : Microsoft Hyper-V Network Adapter
   Physical Address. . . . . . . . . : 00-15-5D-0A-5C-02
   DHCP Enabled. . . . . . . . . . . : Yes
   Autoconfiguration Enabled . . . . : Yes
   IPv4 Address. . . . . . . . . . . : 10.10.10.49(Preferred)
   Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.0
   Lease Obtained. . . . . . . . . . : Saturday, August 23, 2014 10:23:01 PM
   Lease Expires . . . . . . . . . . : Wednesday, August 27, 2014 10:23:01 PM
   Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 10.10.10.1
   DHCP Server . . . . . . . . . . . : 10.10.10.1
   DNS Servers . . . . . . . . . . . : 10.10.10.220
                                       10.10.10.221
   NetBIOS over Tcpip. . . . . . . . : Enabled
Tunnel adapter isatap.company.local:
   Media State . . . . . . . . . . . : Media disconnected
   Connection-specific DNS Suffix  . : company.local
   Description . . . . . . . . . . . : Microsoft ISATAP Adapter
   Physical Address. . . . . . . . . : 00-00-00-00-00-00-00-E0
   DHCP Enabled. . . . . . . . . . . : No
   Autoconfiguration Enabled . . . . : Yes
NOTE: 10.10.10.220 and 10.10.10.221 are the other domain controllers on my network.  One of them is 2012 and one of them is 2008.  They are both functioning correctly for providing DNS services.  The 2012 Virtual DC, however, still has
the internet connectivity issue that this whole post was about in the first place.
NOTE2: When I logged on to COMPANYDC02 this morning, it told me that I had new Windows Updates that needed to be downloaded.   Confused, I checked the most recent time WU had checked for updates at it had successfully checked for updates last night
at 10pm.  Of course, it failed when trying to download them, but it appears that once in a while, a connection gets through successfully...